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{{About|the historical region|the modern-day region|Andalusia|the area in Kuwait|Al Andalus, Kuwait|the musical group|Al-Andalus Ensemble}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2012}}
[[File:Califato de Córdoba - 1000-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Al-Andalus and Christian kingdoms circa 1000, at the apogee of [[Almanzor]]]]
{{History of al-Andalus}}
'''Al-Andalus''',{{efn|{{lang-ar|الأنْدَلُس}} [[DIN 31635|trans.]] {{transl|ar|''al-ʼAndalus''}}; {{lang-an|al-Andalus}}; {{lang-ast|al-Ándalus}}; {{lang-eu|al-Andalus}}; {{lang-ber|ⴰⵏⴷⴰⵍⵓⵙ|label=[[Berber languages|Berber]]|translit=Andalus}}; {{lang-ca|al-Àndalus}}; {{lang-gl|al-Andalus}}; {{lang-oc|Al Andalús}}; {{lang-pt|al-Ândalus}}; {{lang-es|al-Ándalus}}}} also known as '''Muslim Spain''', '''Muslim Iberia''', or '''Islamic Iberia''', was a [[Middle Ages|medieval]] Muslim territory and cultural domain that in its early period occupied most of [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], today's Portugal and Spain. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied the northwest of the [[Iberian peninsula]] and a part of present day southern France [[Septimania]] (8th century) and for nearly a century (9th–10th centuries) extended its control from [[Fraxinet]] over the Alpine passes which connect Italy with the remainder of Western Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Versteegh|first=Kees|date=1990-01-01|title=The Arab Presence in France and Switzerland in the 10Th Century|url=http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/journals/10.1163/157005890x00041|journal=Arabica|language=en|volume=37|issue=3|pages=359–388|doi=10.1163/157005890X00041|issn=1570-0585|jstor=4057147}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wenner|first=Manfred W.|date=August 1980|title=The Arab/Muslim Presence in Medieval Central Europe|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/international-journal-of-middle-east-studies/article/arabmuslim-presence-in-medieval-central-europe/DC701B38E873F9B25B995114D47C3711|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|language=en|volume=12|issue=1|pages=59–79|doi=10.1017/S0020743800027136|issn=1471-6380|jstor=163627}}</ref><ref>Some authors mention bands penetrating as far north as Sankt Gallen, where they sacked the monastery in 939. Cf. Ekkehard, Casus S. Galli, IV, 15 (pp. 137f); Lévi-Provençal (1950:60); Reinaud (1964:149f).</ref> The name more generally describes the parts of the peninsula governed by [[Muslims]] (given the generic name of [[Moors]]) at various times between 711 and 1492, though the boundaries changed constantly as the Christian [[Reconquista]] progressed,<ref>"Para los autores árabes medievales, el término Al-Andalus designa la totalidad de las zonas conquistadas – siquiera temporalmente – por tropas arabo-musulmanas en territorios actualmente pertenecientes a Portugal, España y Francia" ("For medieval Arab authors, Al-Andalus designated all the conquered areas – even temporarily – by Arab-Muslim troops in territories now belonging to Portugal, Spain and France"), [[:es:José Ángel García de Cortázar|José Ángel García de Cortázar]], ''V Semana de Estudios Medievales: Nájera, 1 al 5 de agosto de 1994'', Gobierno de La Rioja, Instituto de Estudios Riojanos, 1995, p. 52.</ref><ref name="Ruano(Spain)2002">{{cite book |author=[[:es:Eloy Benito Ruano|Eloy Benito Ruano]]|title=Tópicos y realidades de la Edad Media |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xX35wGGJaaIC |year=2002 |publisher=Real Academia de la Historia |isbn=978-84-95983-06-0 |page=79 |quote=Los arabes y musulmanes de la Edad Media aplicaron el nombre de Al-Andalus a todas aquellas tierras que habian formado parte del reino visigodo: la Peninsula Ibérica y la Septimania ultrapirenaica. ("The Arabs and Muslims from the Middle Ages used the name of al-Andalus for all those lands that were formerly part of the Visigothic kingdom: the Iberian Peninsula and Septimania")}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Islam]]|date=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Esposito, John L.|isbn=0195125584|location=New York|oclc=50280143|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001}}</ref> eventually shrinking to the south around modern-day [[Andalusia]] and then to the [[Emirate of Granada]].
Following the [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania]], al-Andalus, then at its greatest extent, was divided into five administrative units, corresponding roughly to modern [[Andalusia]], [[Portugal]] and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]], [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of León|León]], [[Navarre]], [[Aragon]], the [[County of Barcelona]], and [[Septimania]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yA3p6v3UxyIC&pg=PA142|title=A History of Medieval Spain|last=O'Callaghan|first=Joseph F.|date=1983-10-31|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0801468728|location=Ithaca|oclc=907117391|page=142}}</ref> As a political domain, it successively constituted a province of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]], initiated by the Caliph [[Al-Walid I]] (711–750); the [[Emirate of Córdoba]] (c. 750–929); the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]] (929–1031); and the Caliphate of Córdoba's ''[[taifa]]'' (successor) kingdoms. Rule under these kingdoms led to a rise in cultural exchange and cooperation between Muslims and [[Christians]]. [[People of the Book|Christians and Jews]] were subject to a special tax called [[Jizya]], to the state, which in return provided internal autonomy in practicing their religion and offered the same level of protections by the Muslim rulers. The jizya was not only a tax, however, but also a symbolic expression of subordination.<ref>Lewis, Bernard. The Jews of Islam. PrincetMeyrick, Fredrick. The Doctrine of the Church of England on the Holy Communion. NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984. p. 14. "Under the ruling Caliph (the descendant of Mohammed – the prophet of G–d on earth), the Jews were able to preserve their rites and traditions. Peaceful coexistence led to their economic and social expansion. Their status was that of [[Dhimmis]], non-Muslims living in a land governed by Muslims. The Jews had limited autonomy, but full rights to practice their religion, as well as full protection by their Muslim rulers, but this did not occur for free. There was a specific tax called the jizya that Dhimmis had to pay to receive these benefits. Having its origin in the Qur'an, it states Dhimmis who did not pay this tax, should either convert to Islam, or face the death penalty (Qur'an 9, 29). This tax, higher than the tax Muslims had to pay, was in several occasions one of the most important sources of income for the kingdom. The jizya was not only a tax, but also a symbolic expression of subordination (Lewis 14)."It is a common misapprehension that the holy war meant that the Muslims gave their opponents a choice 'between Islam and the sword'. This was sometimes the case, but only when the opponents were polytheist and idol-worshippers. For Jews, Christians, and other 'People of the Book', there was a third possibility, they might become a 'protected group', paying a tax or tribute to the Muslims but enjoying internal autonomy" (Watt 144)</ref>
Under the Caliphate of Córdoba, al-Andalus was a beacon of learning, and the city of [[Córdoba, Andalusia|Córdoba]], the largest in Europe, became one of the leading cultural and economic centres throughout the [[Mediterranean Basin]], Europe, and the Islamic world. Achievements that advanced Islamic and Western science came from al-Andalus, including major advances in trigonometry ([[Jabir ibn Aflah|Geber]]), astronomy ([[Arzachel]]), surgery ([[Abulcasis]]), pharmacology ([[Avenzoar]]),<ref name="rediscScience">{{Cite journal|last=Covington|first=Richard|year=2007|editor-last=Arndt|editor-first=Robert|title=Rediscovering Arabic Science|url=http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200703/rediscovering.arabic.science.htm|journal=Saudi Aramco World|publisher=Aramco Services Company|volume=58|issue=3|pages=2-16}}</ref> [[Arab Agricultural Revolution|agronomy]] ([[Ibn Bassal]] and [[Abū l-Khayr al-Ishbīlī]]),<ref name=Zaimeche>{{cite web |last1=Zaimeche |first1=Salah |title=Agriculture in Muslim civilisation : A Green Revolution in Pre-Modern Times |url=http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/agriculture |publisher=Muslim Heritage |date=August 2002 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20171007030801/http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/agriculture |archivedate=7 October 2017 |dead-url=no}}</ref> and other fields. Al-Andalus became a major educational center for Europe and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea as well as a conduit for cultural and scientific exchange between the Islamic and Christian worlds.<ref name="rediscScience"/>
For much of its history, al-Andalus existed in conflict with Christian kingdoms to the north. After the fall of the Umayyad caliphate, al-Andalus was fragmented into minor states and principalities. Attacks from the Christians intensified, led by the Castilians under [[Alfonso VI of León and Castile|Alfonso VI]]. The Almoravid empire intervened and repelled the Christian attacks on the region, deposing the weak Andalusi Muslim princes and included al-Andalus under direct [[Berber people|Berber]] rule. In the next century and a half, al-Andalus became a province of the Berber Muslim empires of the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] and [[Almohads]], both based in [[Marrakesh]].
Ultimately, the Christian kingdoms in the north of the Iberian Peninsula overpowered the Muslim states to the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI captured [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], starting a gradual decline of Muslim power. With the fall of Córdoba in 1236, most of the south quickly fell under Christian rule and the [[Emirate of Granada]] became a tributary state of the [[Crown of Castile|Kingdom of Castile]]<!--'Kingdom of Castile' nomenclature refers to another era--> two years later. In 1249, the Portuguese Reconquista culminated with the conquest of the [[Algarve]] by [[Afonso III of Portugal|Afonso III]], leaving Granada as the last Muslim state on the Iberian Peninsula. Finally, on January 2, 1492,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.elhistoriador.com.ar/la-reconquista-espanola/|title=La Reconquista española|last=Pigna|first=Felipe|date=2018-02-06|website=El Historiador|language=es|deadurl=no|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208095542/http://www.elhistoriador.com.ar/aula/medieval/reconquista_espanola.php|archivedate=8 December 2015}}</ref> Emir [[Muhammad XII of Granada|Muhammad XII]] surrendered the Emirate of Granada to Queen [[Isabella I of Castile]], completing the Christian Reconquista of the peninsula. Although al-Andalus ended as a political entity, the nearly eight centuries of Islamic rule has left a significant effect on culture and language in [[Andalusia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andalucia.com/history/spainsmoorishhistory.htm|title=The Moors in Andalucia – 8th to 15th Centuries|publisher=Andalucia Com SL|access-date=28 November 2015}}</ref>
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